CushionTheBlow (구 BluemoonSoft)

Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level computer programming language. It was originally designed by a team led by Jean Ichbiah of CII Honeywell Bull under contract to the United States Department of Defense during 1977–1983 to supersede the hundreds of programming languages then used by the US Department of Defense (DoD). Ada addresses some of the same tasks as C or C++, but Ada is strongly typed and compilers are validated for reliability in mission-critical applications, such as avionics software. Ada is an international standard; the current version (known as Ada 2005) is defined by joint ISO/ANSI standard (ISO-8652:1995), combined with major Amendment ISO/IEC 8652:1995/Amd 1:2007.

Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who is often credited with inventing computer programming.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)

Constraint programming is a programming paradigm where relations between variables can be stated in the form of constraints. Constraints differ from the common primitives of other programming languages in that they do not specify a step or sequence of steps to execute but rather the properties of a solution to be found. The constraints used in constraint programming are of various kinds: those used in constraint satisfaction problems, those solved by the simplex algorithm, and others. Constraints are usually embedded within a programming language or provided via separate software libraries.

Constraint programming began with constraint logic programming, which embeds constraints into a logic program. This variant of logic programming is due to Jaffar and Lassez, who extended in 1987 a specific class of constraints that were introduced in Prolog II. The first implementations of constraint logic programming were Prolog III, CLP(R), and CHIP. Several constraint logic programming interpreters exist today, for example GNU Prolog.

Other than logic programming, constraints can be mixed with functional programming, term rewriting, and imperative languages. Constraints in functional programming are implemented in the multi-paradigm programming language Oz. Constraints are embedded in an imperative language in Kaleidoscope. However, constraints are implemented in imperative languages mostly via constraint solving toolkits, which are separate libraries for an existing imperative language. ILOG CP Optimizer is an example of such a constraint programming library for C++, Java and .NET.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constraint_programming

Prolog is a logic programming language. It is a general purpose language often associated with artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. It has a purely logical subset, called "pure Prolog", as well as a number of extralogical features.

Having its roots in formal logic, and unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is declarative: The program logic is expressed in terms of relations, and execution is triggered by running queries over these relations. Relations and queries are constructed using Prolog's single data type, the term. Relations are defined by clauses. Given a query, the Prolog engine attempts to find a resolution refutation of the negated query. If the negated query can be refuted, i.e., an instantiation for all free variables is found that makes the union of clauses and the singleton set consisting of the negated query false, it follows that the original query, with the found instantiation applied, is a logical consequence of the program. This makes Prolog (and other logic programming languages) particularly useful for database, symbolic mathematics, and language parsing applications. Because Prolog allows impure predicates, checking the truth value of certain special predicates may have some deliberate side effect, such as printing a value to the screen. This permits the programmer to use some amount of conventional imperative programming when the logical paradigm is inconvenient.

The language was first conceived by a group around Alain Colmerauer in Marseille, France, in the early 1970s, while the first compiler was written by David H. D. Warren in Edinburgh, Scotland. Prolog was one of the first logic programming languages, and remains among the most popular such languages today, with many free and commercial implementations available. While initially aimed at natural language processing, the language has since then streched far into other areas like theorem proving, expert systems, games, automated answering systems, ontologies and sophisticated control systems, and modern Prolog environments support the creation of graphical user interfaces, as well as administrative and networked applications.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog

Logic programming (which might better be called logical programming by analogy with mathematical programming and linear programming) is, in its broadest sense, the use of mathematical logic for computer programming. In this view of logic programming, which can be traced at least as far back as John McCarthy's [1958] advice-taker proposal, logic is used as a purely declarative representation language, and a theorem-prover or model-generator is used as the problem-solver. The problem-solving task is split between the programmer, who is responsible only for ensuring the truth of programs expressed in logical form, and the theorem-prover or model-generator, which is responsible for solving problems efficiently.

However, logic programming, in the narrower sense in which it is more commonly understood, is the use of logic as both a declarative and procedural representation language. It is based upon the fact that a backwards reasoning theorem-prover applied to declarative sentences in the form of implications:

If B1 and … and Bn then H
treats the implications as goal-reduction procedures:

to show/solve H, show/solve B1 and … and Bn.
For example, it treats the implication:

If you press the alarm signal button,
then you alert the driver of the train of a possible emergency
as the procedure:

To alert the driver of the train of a possible emergency,
press the alarm signal button.
The programmer is responsible, not only for ensuring the truth of programs, but also for ensuring their efficiency. In many cases, to achieve efficiency, the programmer needs to be aware of and to exploit the problem-solving behavior of the theorem-prover. In this respect, logic programming is like conventional imperative programming, using programs to control the behaviour of a program executor. However, unlike imperative programs, which have only a procedural interpretation, logic programs also have a declarative, logical interpretation, which helps to ensure their correctness. Moreover, such programs, being declarative, are at a higher conceptual level than purely imperative programs; and their program executors, being theorem-provers, operate at a higher conceptual level than conventional compilers and interpreters.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_programming

In computer science, functional programming is a programming paradigm that treats computation as the evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data. It emphasizes the application of functions, in contrast with the imperative programming style that emphasizes changes in state.

Functional languages include APL, Erlang, Haskell, Lisp, ML, F# and Scheme.

Functional programming languages, especially purely functional ones, have largely been emphasized in academia rather than in commercial software development. However, notable functional programming languages used in industry and commercial applications include Erlang (concurrent applications), R (statistics), Mathematica (symbolic math), ML, J and K (financial analysis), and domain-specific programming languages like XSLT.

The lambda calculus provides the model for functional programming. Modern functional languages can be viewed as embellishments to the lambda calculus.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming

Declarative programming is a term with two distinct meanings, both of which are in current use.

According to one definition, a program is "declarative" if it describes what something is like, rather than how to create it. For example, HTML web pages are declarative because they describe what the page should contain — title, text, images — but not how to actually display the page on a computer screen. This is a different approach from imperative programming languages such as Fortran, C, and Java, which require the programmer to specify an algorithm to be run. In short, imperative programs explicitly specify an algorithm to achieve a goal, while declarative programs explicitly specify the goal and leave the implementation of the algorithm to the support software (for example, a SQL select statement specifies the properties of the data to be extracted from a database, not the process of extracting the data).

According to a different definition, a program is "declarative" if it is written in a purely functional programming language, logic programming language, or constraint programming language. The phrase "declarative language" is sometimes used to describe all such programming languages as a group, and to contrast them against imperative languages.

These two definitions overlap somewhat. In particular, constraint programming and, to a lesser degree, logic programming, focus on describing the properties of the desired solution (the what), leaving unspecified the actual algorithm that should be used to find that solution (the how). However, most logic and constraint languages are able to describe algorithms and implementation details, so they are not strictly declarative by the first definition.

Similarly, it is possible to write programs in a declarative style even in an imperative programming language. This is usually done by encapsulating non-declarative details inside a library or framework. An example of this style is the use of reflection in the JUnit unit test framework, which allows unit tests to be registered with the framework merely by being defined.

In a declarative program you write (declare) a data structure that is processed by a standard algorithm (for that language) to produce the desired result.

A declarative language, like all languages, has a syntax describing how the words in the language may be combined, and a semantics describing how sentences in the language correspond to a program's output.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarative_programming

In computer science, imperative programming, as contrasted with declarative programming, is a programming paradigm that describes computation as statements that change a program state. In much the same way as the imperative mood in natural languages expresses commands to take action, imperative programs are a sequence of commands for the computer to perform. Procedural programming is a common method of executing imperative programming, and the terms are often used as synonyms.

Imperative programming languages stand in contrast to other types of languages, such as functional and logical programming languages, which both often support declarative programming features. Functional programming languages, such as Haskell, are not a sequence of statements and have no global state as imperative languages do. Logical programming languages, like Prolog, are often thought of as defining "what" is to be computed, rather than "how" the computation is to take place.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programming

Representational State Transfer (REST) is a style of software architecture for distributed hypermedia systems such as the World Wide Web. The terms “Representational State Transfer” and “REST” were introduced in 2000 in the doctoral dissertation of Roy Fielding, one of the principal authors of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) specification. The terms have since come into widespread use in the networking community.

REST strictly refers to a collection of network architecture principles which outline how resources are defined and addressed. The term is often used in a looser sense to describe any simple interface which transmits domain-specific data over HTTP without an additional messaging layer such as SOAP or session tracking via HTTP cookies. These two meanings can conflict as well as overlap. It is possible to design any large software system in accordance with Fielding’s REST architectural style without using HTTP and without interacting with the World Wide Web. It is also possible to design simple XML+HTTP interfaces which do not conform to REST principles, and instead follow a model of remote procedure call. The difference between the uses of the term “REST” causes some confusion in technical discussions.

Systems which follow Fielding’s REST principles are often referred to as “RESTful”.

Refernce:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representational_State_Transfer

Event-driven architecture (EDA) is a software architecture pattern promoting the production, detection, consumption of, and reaction to events.

An event can be defined as "a significant change in state". For example, when a consumer purchases a car, the car's state changes from "for sale" to "sold". A car dealer's system architecture may treat this state change as an event to be detected, produced, published and consumed by various applications within the architecture.

This architectural pattern may be applied by the design and implementation of applications and systems which transmit events among loosely coupled software components and services. An event-driven system typically consists of event consumers and event producers. Event consumers subscribe to an intermediary event manager, and event producers publish to this manager. When the event manager receives an event from a producer, the manager forwards the event to the consumer. If the consumer is unavailable, the manager can store the event and try to forward it later. This method of event transmission is referred to in message-based systems as "store and forward" .

Building applications and systems around an event-driven architecture allows these applications and systems to be constructed in a manner that facilitates more responsiveness, because event-driven systems are, by design, more normalized to unpredictable and asynchronous environments.

Event-driven architecture complements service-oriented architecture (SOA) because services can be started by triggers such as events.

Computing machinery and sensing devices can detect state changes of objects or conditions and create events which can then be processed by a service or system. Event triggers are conditions that result in the creation of an event.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_Driven_Architecture